Recycling

Resource use impacts are highest for active cathode materials such as nickel sulfate and cobalt sulfate. Upscaling reduces emissions by up to 45% though economies of scale, more if a clean energy mix is used. Emissions estimate of 102 vs 62 kg CO2e/kWh for cells produced in Korea vs Sweden (assume 16GWh factory).

Further reduction of emissions is possible, but the energy use of the upstream supply chain has the greatest impact. 83

Research Source: Chordia, M., Nordelöf, A. & Ellingsen, L.AW.

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