Cell Design and Materials: Alternative Chemistries

Vanadium Supply Chain Vanadium is mined from various countries, with Brazil, China, Russia, and South Africa accounting for 90% of production.

Conservatively, there are about 63,000,000 mT of vanadium in reserves. There are 3.94 GWh of operational VRFB globally. 59% of vanadium was produced by co and by-production with steel slag, 17% from mineral recovery and 24% from primary production.

Source: Rogers et al. Joule, 2025

Extracted from the PDF; charts and images may read imperfectly.